phaidra.vetmeduni.ac.at o:5211 DOI 10.1111/desc.70102 Great Ape Childhoods: Social and Spatial Pathways to Independence in Bonobo and Chimpanzee Infants Human development is marked by extended immaturity, necessitating extended care throughout infancy and childhood, facilitating advanced cognitive, social, and cultural skill acquisition. Parallels of extended development are also present in our closest living relatives, bonobos (Pan paniscus) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), which differ markedly in their social systems. Bonobos live in more tolerant, female-bonded societies, while societies of chimpanzees are more hierarchical, and male-dominated. These differences in social ecology may thus also shape the pace and nature of early behavioural development. However, systematic, quantitative comparisons of developmental patterns of bonobos and chimpanzees are very limited, and results are conflicting. Hence, this study addressed this crucial gap by systematically examining behavioural development in bonobo and chimpanzee infants living in two populations (Kokolopori community, Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve, DRC, N = 21; Ngogo community, Kibale National Park, Uganda, N = 22) in their natural environments. We specifically focused on infants aged 0–5.5 years and investigated behavioural markers of independence (travel, feeding, grooming) and spatial independence. Our results showed similar developmental trajectories but marked species differences concerning specific social and spatial patterns. While chimpanzee infants exhibited prolonged dorsal riding, bonobo infants travelled independently more often and maintained greater distances from their mothers. In addition, age, sibling presence and maternal parity, but not sex, influenced behavioural patterns. These findings highlight the importance of systematic comparative developmental research across great ape populations for understanding both species-specific adaptations and the broader evolutionary foundations of extended development in the human lineage. eng Developmental Milestones Developmental Trajectories Evolution Extended Development Infant 2026-06-23T10:24:40.786Z LOMv1.0 Author BEGIN:VCARD VERSION:3.0 N:Vlaeyen;Jolinde M. R.; FN:Jolinde M. R. Vlaeyen X-ORCID:https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9073-503X END:VCARD BEGIN:VCARD VERSION:3.0 N:van Boekholt;Bas; FN:Bas van Boekholt X-ORCID:https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3399-6938 END:VCARD BEGIN:VCARD VERSION:3.0 N:Wegdell;Franziska; FN:Franziska Wegdell X-ORCID:https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3108-2999 END:VCARD BEGIN:VCARD VERSION:3.0 N:Katumba;Raymond; FN:Raymond Katumba END:VCARD BEGIN:VCARD VERSION:3.0 N:Berghänel;Andreas; FN:Andreas Berghänel X-ORCID:https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3317-3392 END:VCARD BEGIN:VCARD VERSION:3.0 N:Surbeck;Martin; FN:Martin Surbeck X-ORCID:https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2910-2927 END:VCARD BEGIN:VCARD VERSION:3.0 N:Pika;Simone; FN:Simone Pika X-ORCID:https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4398-2337 END:VCARD https://w3id.org/kim/hcrt/scheme https://w3id.org/kim/hcrt/text Textdokument Text LOMv1.0 yes https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 application/pdf 1473525 https://phaidra.vetmeduni.ac.at/o:5211 https://phaidra.vetmeduni.ac.at/api/object/o:5211/thumbnail LOMv1.0 discipline