o:3421 The evolution and ecology of multiple antipredator defences en Prey seldom rely on a single type of antipredator defence, often using multiple defences to avoid predation. In many cases, selection in different contexts may favour the evolution of multiple defences in a prey. However, a prey may use multiple defences to protect itself during a single predator encounter. Such "defence portfolios" that defend prey against a single instance of predation are distributed across and within successive stages of the predation sequence (encounter, detection, identification, approach (attack), subjugation and consumption). We contend that at present, our understanding of defence portfolio evolution is incomplete, and seen from the fragmentary perspective of specific sensory systems (e.g., visual) or specific types of defences (especially aposematism). In this review, we aim to build a comprehensive framework for conceptualizing the evolution of multiple prey defences, beginning with hypotheses for the evolution of multiple defences in general, and defence portfolios in particular. We then examine idealized models of resource trade-offs and functional interactions between traits, along with evidence supporting them. We find that defence portfolios are constrained by resource allocation to other aspects of life history, as well as functional incompatibilities between different defences. We also find that selection is likely to favour combinations of defences that have synergistic effects on predator behaviour and prey survival. Next, we examine specific aspects of prey ecology, genetics and development, and predator cognition that modify the predictions of current hypotheses or introduce competing hypotheses. We outline schema for gathering data on the distribution of prey defences across species and geography, determining how multiple defences are produced, and testing the proximate mechanisms by which multiple prey defences impact predator behaviour. Adopting these approaches will strengthen our understanding of multiple defensive strategies. Genetic Trade-Off; Warning Signals; Multisensory Integration; Predator Avoidance; Chemical Defenses; Body-Size; Color; Aposematism; Prey; Costs 1552099 10.1111/jeb.14192 2024-08-23T08:26:04.629Z 44 yes 46 David W. Kikuchi Oregon State University / Bielefeld University 0000-0002-7379-2788 Alice Exnerová Charles University person 0000-0001-7937-1477 Justin Yeager Universidad de las Américas person 0000-0001-8692-6311 Anne E. Winters University of Exeter person Kate Umbers Western Sydney University person Rose Thorogood University of Helsinki person Christopher H. Taylor University of Nottingham person 0000-0003-4299-7104 Kyle Summers East Carolina University person Amanda M. Stefan Carleton University person Ted Stankowich California State University, Long Beach person 0000-0002-6579-7765 Hannah R. Smart Western Sydney University person John Skelhorn Newcastle University person Thomas N. Sherratt Carleton University person Kaitlin A. Schaal ETH Zurich person Arlety Roy University of French Guiana person Hannah M. Rowland Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology person Candy Rowe Newcastle University person Daniela C. Rößler University of Konstanz / Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior person Katja H. Rönkä University of Helsinki person Bibiana Rojas University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna / University of Jyväskylä person 0000-0002-6715-7294 Tom Reader University of Nottingham person Jan Raška Charles University person 0000-0003-4768-2507 Olivier Penacchio University of St Andrews / Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona person Stano Pekár Masaryk University person Arka Pal Tata Institute of Fundamental Research person Erika Páez Université des Antilles person Viraj Nawge Tata Institute of Fundamental Research person Iliana Medina University of Melbourne person 0000-0002-1021-5035 Callum F. McLellan University of Bristol person Melanie McClure University of French Guiana person Ugo Lorioux-Chevalier University of French Guiana person 0009-0006-1662-8603 Carita Lindstedt University of Helsinki person Brian C. Leavell Purdue University person Krushnamegh Kunte Tata Institute of Fundamental Research person 0000-0002-3860-6118 Mathieu Joron Université de Montpellier person Thomas J. Hossie Trent University person Marie E. Herberstein Macquarie University person Liisa Hämäläinen Macquarie University person Marianne Elias Université des Antilles / Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute person Klára Daňková Charles University person Karen L. Cheney University of Queensland person Emily R. Burdfield-Steel University of Amsterdam person William L. Allen Swansea University person Kevin Arbuckle Swansea University person 0000-0002-9171-5874 Thomas G. Aubier University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill / Université Toulouse III - Paul Sabatier person 0000-0001-8543-5596 Emmanuelle S. Briolat University of Exeter person 0000-0001-5695-1065 application/pdf 2057773 https://phaidra.vetmeduni.ac.at/o:3421 no yes 18 70 1556236 Journal of Evolutionary Biology 17 36 7 975 991 Wiley 2023